At The Crossroads Afro-cuban Orisha Arts In Miami
Holocaust history raises important questions about what Europeans could have done to stop the rise of Nazism in Germany and its assault on Europe’s Jews. Questions also must be asked of the international community, including the United States. What did the US government and the American people know about the threats posed by Nazi Germany? What responses were possible? And when? This exhibition examines the motives, pressures, and fears that shaped Americans’ responses to Nazism, war, and genocide.
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AFRO-CUBAN ORISHA ARTS IN MIAMI
Over the past forty years, Miami, at the crossroads of the Americas, has emerged as one of the major centers of the Afro-Cuban Orisha religion and its array of traditional arts. A religious community of over 100,000 practitioners is served by numerous specialists who produce beadwork, garments, cloth panels, metalwork, woodcarvings, altars, musical instruments, paintings, and other art forms. These works of art are expressions of spiritual devotion, inspired by the many orishas (deities) of the religion’s pantheon, such as Elegbá, Ogún, Shangó, Obatalá,
Yemojá, and Oshún.
Though Orisha artists are highly respected within the religious community, their work is not well known or understood by the wider public. This exhibition explores their creativity in the context of the aesthetics and symbolism of the centuries-old Orisha tradition. Access to a wealth of materials in Miami has enabled these artists to pursue strikingly original aesthetic visions, while still following traditional patterns and the fundamental precepts of the orishas.
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THE AFRO-CUBAN ORISHA RELIGION
The Afro-Cuban Orisha religion, sometimes referred to as “Santería,” is the product of the encounter between Yoruba Orisha worship and the popular practices of Spanish Catholicism in colonial Cuba. Enslaved Africans juxtaposed their beliefs and customs with those imposed by the Spanish colonists to give birth to a new interpretation of their traditional religion.
From the 16th century through the 19th century, close to one million people from West and Central Africa were enslaved and transported to Cuba. The trade in African people increased substantially during the late 18th and 19th centuries, with the growth of the island’s plantations. During this period, the Yoruba (from what is now southwestern Nigeria and eastern Benin) were one of the principal ethnic groups to be brought to the island. In Cuba the Yoruba, or Lukumí, had a major cultural impact on Africans of various ethnic backgrounds and on people of European descent as well. The Yoruba’s Orisha religion attracted many followers.
The Catholic influence on the Yoruba religion is manifested in such practices as the association of individual orishas with Catholic saints. For example, Oshún parallels Our Lady of Charity, the patron saint of Cuba. Catholicism may have provided a veneer of respectability--a means by which African beliefs and customs could survive in a hostile society.
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ORISHA WORSHIP IN MIAMI
With the settlement of Cubans in the United States, particularly after the 1959 Revolution, the Orisha religion developed in New York, Miami, Chicago, and other cities. A series of mass migrations of Cubans to South Florida transformed Miami into the center of Cuban culture in America. The orishas accompanied their worshipers across the Florida Straits, just as they had joined earlier worshipers on the traumatic journey from West Africa to Cuba.
Cuban exiles to Miami.
The earliest wave of Cuban exiles to Miami consisted mainly of middle to upper class whites. For the most part, this sector of Cuban society was either alien to Afro-Cuban religions or consulted diviners only in times of crisis. The new stresses created by the exile experience in Miami led many people to turn to the Orisha religion, given its emphasis on practical solutions to everyday life and its extensive networks of mutual aid.
In 1980 close to 125,000 Cubans arrived in South Florida during what was known as the “Mariel boatlift.” This massive exodus included people from all strata of Cuban society, a significant number of whom were Orisha practitioners. The Mariel boatlift and more recent migration have played an important role in reinvigorating the Orisha community and its artistic traditions in Miami.
Over the years, people of many other cultural backgrounds have become Orisha practitioners. Though Orisha worship is now an integral part of the American religious landscape, it is still often misunderstood and subjected to negative stereotypes. Such misunderstandings are a legacy of years of colonial denigration of African cultural traditions.
ORISHA ARTISTS
Artists play an essential role in the Orisha community in Miami, where they cater to divine as well as human tastes. Beadworkers, tailors/seamstresses, metalworkers, woodcarvers, and other artists must be well versed in the aesthetic preferences of the individual orishas whom they serve. Gratifying an orisha is an extremely important consideration, since an orisha’s pleasure or displeasure with an artwork can have divine influence on the artist’s prosperity in the community. An orisha could “close the roads” for the artist!
At the same time, the artist must create an item that is aesthetically pleasing both to the olorisha (priest/priestess) who commissioned it and to the community who will frequently see it during ceremonial gatherings. Like the orishas, the community is influential in spreading the word about the artist’s expertise and grace, or lack thereof. The community, too, can be influential in “closing roads,” if it does not find an artwork appealing and worthy of the orisha for whom it was created.
BEADWORK
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Beads manifest the beauty and magnificence of the orishas. In ancient Yorubaland, beads were considered a status symbol--a marker of power and economic well-being. Today beads continue to be highly valued for their specific relations with individual orishas.
For example, ivory and mother-of-pearl beads are status markers for Oduduwá and Obatalá, who are the two most respected orishas in the pantheon because of their proximity to Olodumaré (the Supreme Being). Coral, attributed specifically to Oshún and Yemojá, is considered a symbol of prosperity and is believed to bring good fortune to the wearer.
Azabache (jet black) beads are known to guard the wearer from envy and the evil eye. Erinlé, considered one of the most refined orishas, wears a necklace of coral, jet, and gold beads. Ibú Ikolé, a “road” (avatar) of Oshún, wears a jet, coral, and amber necklace. Oduduwá’s necklace includes ivory, mother of pearl and coral.
Orisha beadworkers in Miami, such as Carlos Leon, Miguel Sabina, and Ibis Garcia, produce a variety of ceremonial items, including collares de mazo or “mazos” (large necklaces with clusters of beads), elekés (single-string necklaces), idés (bracelets), mayas (decorative bead nets), and artículos forrados (ceremonial items that are covered with beads).
Mazos are one of the most complex types of beadwork. A mazo consists of various strings of beads that are divided into sections called casetas (huts), separated by larger beads called glorias. A number of tassel-like strands called moñas hang from the front and sides of the necklace. The arrangement of beads is determined by the ritual number associated with the orisha for whom the mazo is intended.
PAÑOS
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Paños (cloth panels) are used to “dress” orishas on special occasions, such as religious anniversaries or other spiritual celebrations. In past years in Cuba, many olorishas (priests/priestesses) embroidered their paños, though embroidered silk shawls, imported from Spain, were also quite popular. In Miami paños have developed into a particularly elaborate art form and generally are made by specialists, such as Jorge Ortega and Obdulia Garcia. Fine fabrics, beads, cowries, pearls, rhinestones, and metallic trimmings are all employed to create paños that reflect the colors, natural attributes, totemic animals, and emblems of specific orishas.
Paños are often used to adorn jars that contain ritual objects belonging to orishas. For the most part, their function is ornamental: they are meant to please an orisha and present him or her in an attractive fashion. At other times, the covering of an orisha is recommended by an oracle. Paños are also hung in thrones (altars), where they serve as flags of the orishas.
During wemileres (drumming celebrations), paños are used to dress the orishas who possess olorishas. Typically, a female orisha wears a paño over her shoulders as a type of shawl, while a male orisha wears one tied around his waist. Frequently, orishas pass paños over the bodies of the attendees at a wemilere to cleanse them of any negative energy. Occasionally, an orisha may give a paño away as a present to a special devotee.
GARMENTS
A variety of Orisha garments are used in specific ceremonial contexts. On the second day of an ordination, for example, the iyawó (novice) wears two outfits that are specially commissioned for the ritual: the traje del almuerzo (lunch outfit) and the traje de gala (coronation outfit). These garments are made in the specific colors of the person’s tutelary or principal orisha, such as red for Shangó, blue for Yemojá, and white for Obatalá.
The lunch outfit is usually made of gingham or burlap. The coronation outfit is much more elaborate and is an exhibition of the creativity and dexterity of the tailor or seamstress. This art form has evolved tremendously in Miami over the past twenty years, as is evident in comparing the earlier work of Pilar Benitez with the contemporary outfits by artists such as Jorge Ortega, Rolando Vasallo, and Eusebio Escobar. When dressed in a coronation outfit, the iyawó also wears an elegant crown. The ordination of an Orisha priest/priestess is considered analogous to the coronation of a king or queen.
Another type of ceremonial garment is the traje de baile (dance outfit). This ensemble is made for an individual specifically engaged as a “mount” at a wemilere, i.e., someone who will be possessed by the honored orisha at a drumming celebration. Dance outfits do not require a crown. Instead, a female mount will typically wear a kerchief, while a male will wear a textile cap.
THRONES
Altars for the orishas, known as “thrones,” are built for a variety of religious occasions. These textile microcosms have become particularly elaborate in Miami, due to the availability of fabrics and other materials, as well as to the demand by patrons for unique, and often sensational, displays. A designer, such as Norberto “Nene” Fernandez or Jorge Ortega, is responsible for coordinating the colors, materials, objects, and symbols that correspond to the deity for whom the throne is created.
A “consecration throne” is built when a practitioner is initiated into the Orisha priesthood. The throne represents the specific orisha to whom the iyawó (novice) is being ordained. The iyawó, reborn into a new life, is confined to the throne for seven days, during which he or she is attended like a newborn child. An “observance throne” is typically constructed once a year to celebrate the anniversary of the ordination of an olorisha (priest/priestess). Since this type of throne honors an orisha, it is more elaborate than a consecration throne. Though the throne highlights the olorisha’s tutelary deity, other orishas associated with the ordination are also featured in hierarchical order.
A “ritual throne” is typically erected when oracles instruct an olorisha to perform a specific ceremony. Since only one orisha is usually featured, the designer has more space to experiment with materials and mesmerize the devotees. Both ritual and observance thrones contain a variety of fruits, pastries, puddings, breads, and other offerings. At the conclusion of a ceremony, these foods, imbued with ashé (divine energy), are distributed to all present.
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HERRAMIENTAS
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Among an orisha’s paraphernalia are the metal or wooden implements known as herramientas (tools). As implied by the term “herramientas,” these objects “empower” an orisha. Miami’s Orisha community is served by several master toolmakers, including Antonio Salas and Juan Gonzalez.
Many aspects of Afro-Cuban herramientas have counterparts in Yorubaland, such as Shangó’s oshé (a double-headed axe) and the ashabás (charm chains used by various orishas) that are similar to the shabás employed by Yoruba hunters and hunting deities. At the same time, various Western aesthetic elements have been adopted by Orisha toolmakers in Cuba and the United States. Metal crowns, reminiscent of those worn by European imperial monarchs, replaced the more traditional cone-shaped beaded crowns known among the Yoruba today. Symbols were also derived from Cuban plantation society. For example, Orishaokó, the god of agriculture, is represented by an ox-drawn plow, with a parasol in its rear section to protect the farmer from the insolence of the Caribbean sun.
There are two basic types of herramientas: those used for the consecration of an orisha and those employed as regalia by the orisha or by worshipers. The material used to make the implements is determined in accordance with strict religious axioms, in that each orisha has particular preferences. For example, Obatalá (the god of creation and purity) dresses in immaculate white garments. He prefers white metals: silver, stainless steel, and aluminum. Oshún (the goddess of love and sensuality) has a preference for brass. Ogún (the god of iron and war) will only accept iron implements.
MUSIC
Music pervades every aspect of Orisha worship. Percussion, singing, chanting, and dancing serve as major vehicles through which practitioners harness ashé, the divine energy that animates the earth and all that exists. Establishing a proper connection with ashé ensures well-being. During ceremonies, ashé is manifested through the orishas, who partake in the celebrations through possession of devotees.
At the most important ceremonies, music is provided by batá, a trio of double-headed hourglass-shaped drums. The ensemble consists of the iyá (mother), the itótele (he who follows in rank), and the okónkolo (small child). Shangó is the patron deity of batá drums and is the owner of Añá, the deity of music. Consecrated batá drums contain Añá’s energy and may only be played by the Omó Añá, members of a fraternity of drummers.
Batá drums have been used for Orisha worship in the United States since the 1960s. In 1975, in Miami, Pipo Peña, along with sixteen babalawos and various other priests, consecrated the first ritual set of batá in the United States. During the 1980 Mariel boatlift, many renowned batá drummers, such as Orlando “Puntilla” Rios, Juan “el Negro” Raymat, and Ezequiel Torres, arrived in Miami and New York.
For ceremonies in which there is a less rigorous protocol, a shekeré ensemble may be employed. A shekeré is a gourd covered with a net of beads and/or cowries. A typical ensemble consists of three shekerés, a conga drum, and a hoe or cowbell that is struck with a wooden stick. Orisha worship may also include other percussion instruments, such as cajones (wooden boxes).
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IFÁ PARAPHERNALIA
In the Orisha religion, the babalawo (“father of secrets”) is considered to occupy the highest category within the spiritual hierarchy. He is a priest of Orunmila, the orisha of divination, knowledge, and wisdom. His specialization is the study of Odu Ifá, the corpus of 256 verses, prescriptions, and proscriptions of the Ifá oracle, believed to have been handed down by Olodumaré (the Supreme Being). The babalawo employs a number of objects, such as the opón Ifá and opele, in his daily ritual responsibilities.
The opón Ifá is a wooden tray used primarily for divination with specially consecrated palm nuts. It is also employed for sacrificial ceremonies. The opón Ifá symbolizes the earth and is the resting place of Orunmila. Within the tray is the presence of Elegbá, Olodumaré’s cosmic deputy, who is symbolized by anything from a simple cross (representing the four winds) to a pair of hyperboloid eyes (representing the deity’s ever-watchful presence).
A chain, known as an “opele,” is a babalawo’s most commonly used instrument for consulting the oracle. After reciting initial incantations, the babalawo casts the chain on a mat to reveal one of the Odu Ifá. The opele’s popularity stems from its ease of use and the fact that it can be cast at any time of day or night. (Palm nuts, though religiously superior to the opele, require a more complex protocol.) While in Yorubaland an opele is made with the pods of the opele tree, in Cuba it is typically made from coconut shells.
THE ORISHA TRADITION IN POPULAR ARTS
During the 1950s, Desi Arnaz introduced Americans to the Orisha deity Babaluaiyé in the television sitcom I Love Lucy. Since the 1960s, a Cuban-American popular culture has developed in Miami that continues to reflect the influence of the Orisha religion in music, dance, literature, and the visual arts.
In the realm of music, popular singer Willie Chirino has referred to the Orisha religion in several hit songs. In “Mr. Don’t Touch the Banana,” for example, he advises an unsuspecting visitor to an Orisha ceremony not to touch the bananas belonging to Shangó! Two dance groups in Miami, Ifé-Ilé and Iroko, teach and perform Afro-Cuban religious dance, as well as other traditional Cuban dance styles. The leaders of these two ensembles, Neri Torres and Elena Garcia, draw extensively on their knowledge of the Orisha tradition in their choreography for performances featuring popular singers. Torres has worked with Gloria Estefan for several years, while Garcia has collaborated with Albita Rodriguez.
Numerous painters and sculptors in Miami have found inspiration in the Orisha religion. Alberto del Pozo, now deceased, produced a well-known series of ink and crayon illustrations of the major orishas. Contemporary artists, such as Miguel Ordoqui, Raul Montero, Laura Luna, José Chiu, and Felix González Sanchez, create works that incorporate a wide range of Orisha motifs, symbols, and colors. These works, along with popular music and dance performances, help to transport the Orisha tradition from the religious community to the wider public of South Florida and beyond.
THE AFRO-CUBAN ORISHA PANTHEON
| Orisha | Domain | Colors |
|---|---|---|
| Elegbá | Crossroads | Red, black, white |
| Ogún | Iron, war | Black, green, Red |
| Oshosi | Hunting | Dark blue, amber |
| Osayín | Healing, herbs | No preference |
| Erinlé | Fishing, healing | Turquoise, green, coral |
| Orishaokó | Agriculture | Turquoise, mauve |
| Babaluaiyé | Smallpox, epidemics | Brown, black, red |
| Ibeji | Twins | White, red (sometimes blue) |
| Dadá and Bayani | Unborn children | Red, white |
| Iroko | Silk-cotton tree | Green, turquoise |
| Aganjú | Volcano | Brown, opal |
| Shangó | Thunder, fire | Red, white |
| Obatalá | Purity | White |
| Odúduwa | Death | White, opal |
| Oba | River | Brown, amber, coral |
| Yewá | Cemetery | Mauve, crimson |
| Oyá | Tempests, marketplace | Brown, red, burgundy |
| Yemojá | Ocean, all waters | Blue, opal, or crystal |
| Olokún | Ocean | Dark blue, red, coral, green |
| Nana Burukú | Lagoon | Black, mauve |
| Oshún | River | Amber, yellow, coral |
| Orúnmila | Divination | Yellow, green |
Table adapted from Miguel "Willie" Ramos, "Afro-Cuban Orisha Worship," in Santería Aesthetics in Contemporary Latin American Art, ed. Arturo Lindsay (Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Press, 1996), pp. 51-76.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Historical Museum of Southern Florida thanks the following individuals and organizations for their contributions to this exhibition.
GUEST CURATORS
Miguel “Willie” Ramos
Ezequiel Torres
Nelson Mendoza
RESEARCH, PHOTOGRAPHY & VIDEOGRAPHY
Adrian Castro
Alma Cirugeda Suarez
Greg Everitt
David Font
Carl Juste
Daniel Kirsch
Freddy Rodriguez
Norma Torrado
Marielena Valdes
EXHIBITION SCRIPT TRANSLATION
Javier Quiñones Ortiz
PROJECT ADVISORS
Adeleke Adeofe
Donald J. Cosentino
Mercedes Cros Sandoval
Ysamur Flores
Obaaye Naidelinne Johnson
Anthony Maingot
Michael A. Mason
Joseph M. Murphy
Norma Torrado
Marielena Valdes
Maureen Warner-Lewis
Kevin Yelvington
ARTISTS
Olympia Alfaro
Manuel Aragón
Pilar Benítez
Nelson Cantillo
Jesús Cárdenas
Adrian Castro
José Chiu
Alberto del Pozo
Mannolie DiSantos
Manuel Dominguez
Eusebio Escobar
Carlos Fernandez
Norberto Fernandez
José Flores
Elena García
Glem García
Ibis García
Obdulia García
Juan González
Felix González Sanchez
Regina Herrera
René “Kadafi” Diaz
Carlos Leon
Nayla Llanes
Laura Luna
Frank Mendez
Victor Mijares
Luis Molina
Raul Montero
Sergio Nuñez
Miguel Ordoqui
Jorge Ortega
Juvenal Ortega
Eunice Pereira
René Ramirez
Miguel Ramos
Olga Ramos
Nilda Ramos
Miguel Sabina
Antonio Salas
Aruan Torres
Ezequiel Torres
Neri Torres
Rolando Vasallo
ARTIFACT LOANS
Laura Alfonso
Nelson Cantilla
Adrian Castro
José Chiu
Angela Nefertiti Davis
Richard Decker
Luis Enriquez
Eusebio Escobar
José Flores
Ysamur Flores
Obdulia García
Jeff González
Felix González Sanchez
Rita Guerra
Cristina Hernandez
Carlos Leon
Nayla Llanes
Laura Luna
Ileana Martinez
Luis G. Mayorga
Luis Molina
Raul Montero
Sergio Nuñez
Miguel Ordoqui
Eunice Pereira
Miguel Ramos
Maria Rodriguez
Romualdo Scioffi
Adrian Suarez
Asabi Thomas
Aruan Torres
Eugenio Villar
Alex Villamia, Yemaya Products
Richter Library, University of Miami
This exhibition and its programs received major funding from the National Endowment for the Arts. Additional support was received from the Miami-Dade County Cultural Affairs Council and the Miami-Dade County Board of County Commissioners.
